Introduction
Although, by and large, most American Jews today feel at home as Jews in America, a very large number of American Jews feel some connection to Israel and to the Jewish community living there. While this connection may be reflected in a keen interest in the latest political developments in Israel there are others whose connection is expressed through efforts on its behalf. Some devote their energies to political advocacy for Israel in its ongoing struggle with the Palestinians; others try to help the floundering Israeli economy through donations or the purchase of Israeli products; others raise money for the Israeli poor and needy; and yet others help by visiting Israel either through organized solidarity missions or as simple tourists.
Why do so many Jews who are comfortable in America care so much about Israel? Is it a general concern for fellow Jews many of whom live in Israel and under difficult circumstances? Or is it that Israel occupies a special place in the hearts of American Jews irrespective of the numbers of Jews currently living there? If the latter, why does it occupy a special place in their hearts? Is it a connection to the biblical land, the centrality that it has occupied in Jewish prayer and Jewish hopes over the years, or is it an understanding of the historical significance of the contemporary state of Israel? Is it some mystical connection or is it perhaps something else?
Go to the Discussion Board. Describe the ways in which Diaspora Jews express their connection to Israel today? Which is the most meaningful to you? Why?
In the following two lessons we will discuss some of the central expressions of the connection between Diaspora Jews and Israel, as well as their meaning and significance, during the late Second Temple period.
However before we study the texts we must review a few basic facts of Jewish History. According to many historians, the Jews (not known as “Jews” at the time but by the broader term “Israelites” or the “People of Israel”) entered the Land of Israel (known previously as Canaan) around 1200 BCE. The land was divided and each tribe (12 in all) received a portion. In 1000 BCE King David established Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and in 950 BCE his son Solomon built the First Temple. In 722 BCE, however, the Assyrians deported the northern tribes of Israel and later in 586 the Babylonians destroyed the Temple and deported the remaining tribe of Judah to Babylon. While the northern tribes assimilated into the surrounding societies (commonly referred to as the “lost tribes”) the Jews in Babylon adapted to the new circumstances and succeeded in creating a vibrant Jewish culture despite being outside their national homeland. Indeed, this is reflected in the fact that when the Persian king Cyrus granted permission to the Jews of Babylon to return to the Land of Israel and to rebuild the Temple in 538 BCE (after the Persians had conquered the Land from the Babylonians) only a fraction of the Jewish community in Babylon heeded the call.
The period of the Second Temple is, thus, marked by the existence of Jewish communities both in and out of the Land of Israel. Indeed, during this period the Diaspora community grew and expanded to new regions. In addition to Babylon which we mentioned above, there was a large Jewish community in Alexandria and throughout Egypt which according to one account numbered 1,000,000. There were also Jews in Syria, in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), Cyprus, and other Greek islands, in Italy and in Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya). During this period, the Jews of the Diaspora eventually outnumbered the Jews living in the land of Israel.
The question that this development raises then is what would be the relationship between the Jews in the Land and the Jews of the Diaspora? Would it be one of detachment, of cooperation, or of conflict? Would they share mutual interests, work toward similar goals fully aware that despite their geographic distance they are still one people, or would they adopt the principle of each to his own and mind their own business?
We are now ready to begin our text study.
Text Study 1
Read texts 1-4 and answer the following questions:
1. What was the nature of the relationship between the Diaspora community and the Land of Israel according to these texts?
2. Was the contribution voluntary or mandatory?
3. How much did each person give?
4. Read Exodus 30:11-16. What payment is described in this chapter? What was its function? How does this text shed light on the above descriptions of Josephus?
5. Did everyone in fact contribute?
6. How did the money reach the Temple from the Diaspora?
7. What was the difference between the contribution of the local Jews and the contribution of the distant Diaspora communities?
1. Josephus (Jewish historian who lived 30-100 CE, born in Jerusalem and later settled in Rome), Antiquities, XIV, 110
But no one need wonder that there was so much wealth in our temple, for all the Jews throughout the habitable world, and those who worshipped God, even those from Asia and Europe had been contributing to it for a long time.
2. Josephus, Antiquities XVIII, 311-313
Nearda is a city in Babylonia that is not only populous but also possesses a rich and extensive district, which, in addition to its other advantages, is also thickly settled. It is, moreover, not easily exposed to hostile invasion because it is entirely encompassed by a bend of the Euphrates and the construction of walls. There is also a city of Nisibis situated on the same bend of the river. The Jews, in consequence, trusting to the natural strength of these places, used to deposit their the two drachm coins which it is the national custom for all to contribute to the cause of God, as well as any other dedicatory offerings. Thus, these cities were their bank of deposit. From there these offerings were sent to Jerusalem at the appropriate time. Many tens of thousands of Jews shared in the convoy of these monies because they feared the raids of the Parthians, to whom Babylonia was subject.
3. Exodus (The second book of the Bible) 30:11-16
The Lord spoke to Moses saying: When you take a census of the Israelite people according to their enrollment, each shall pay the Lord a ransom for himself on being enrolled, that no plague may come upon them through their being enrolled. This is what everyone who is entered in the records shall pay: a half-shekel by the sanctuary weight- twenty gerahs to the shekel- a half-shekel as an offering to the Lord. Everyone who is entered into the records, from the age of twenty years up, shall give the Lord’s offering: the rich shall not pay more and the poor shall not pay less than half a shekel when giving the Lord’s offering as expiation for your persons. You shall take the expiation money from the Israelites and assign it to the service of the Tent of Meeting; it shall serve the Israelites as a reminder before the Lord, as expiation for your persons.
4. Tosefta Shekalim (a 3rd-4th century CE compilation of rabbinic teachings), Chapter 2
The first appropriation he declared “this is on behalf of the Land of Israel; the second he declared “this is on behalf of Ammon and Moab and nearby cities”, the third he declared “this is from Babylon, Media and distant lands… this was the richest of all, for it contained gold coins [staters] and gold darics.
Suggested Answers
1. From these texts it is evident that Jews around the world contributed money to the Temple in Jerusalem. In other words, the Land of Israel was an important center to Jews worldwide because it was there that the Temple- the center of religious life – was situated. We must elaborate on this point.
When we think of examples of religious observance today we think of prayer and synagogue worship, holidays and their respective observances, and life-cycle rituals such as circumcision, Bar Mitzvah, Jewish marriage, and rituals of death and bereavement. These rituals can be performed by Jews wherever they may be. While many of these observances existed then as well, there was one feature of Jewish life that stood out perhaps above all others – sacrificial worship which was restricted to the Temple in Jerusalem. There was a complex array of sacrifices that were to be offered by the community and by individuals under certain circumstanced and on certain fixed occasions (see Leviticus Ch. 1-17). Among those fixed occasions were the festivals each of which had a series of sacrificial offerings (see Numbers 28-29). Furthermore, as we will see in the following lesson, the Jewish leadership in the Temple was responsible for key decisions affecting Jews around the world. Finally, the Temple was where God’s unique presence was believed to reside, God’s home, as it were. Thus, even though Jews, wherever they were, turned to God in prayer, there was (and continues to be) a sense that prayer should be directed toward God’s presence in the Jerusalem Temple. As long as the Temple stood it was the religious center bar none (although another Temple was built in Northern Egypt the Jews there attached little importance to it.)
But there is yet another point that must be mentioned. When we think today of Israel we think of the Jews who live in the sovereign State of Israel and when we talk about supporting Israel we are often referring to supporting not just the Jews that live in the Land of Israel but the political entity of the State of Israel where all Jews are welcome. During the period of the Second Temple, however, with the exception of the 100 in which the Maccabees ruled (164 BCE- 63 BCE), there was no independent Jewish State of Israel (or of any other name). The Persian king gave the Jews the right to return to their homeland and to build their Temple but not to establish an independent state. The same was true when the Greeks took control of the Land in 333 BCE and when the Romans took control in 63 BCE.
Based on the above, we can begin to understand why Diaspora support for Israel meant, more than anything, support for the Temple which, in the absence of a political center, continued to serve as the Jews’ spiritual and religious center and their national source of pride.
2. From the phrase “it is the national custom for all to contribute” we can infer that it had become mandatory on all Jews, similar to a tax that is imposed by the authorities. Indeed, this can be supported by the fact that the Roman emperors firmly established the right of the Jews to collect these taxes and that after the destruction of the Temple the Jews were forced to pay a tax to the Temple of Jupiter in Rome in lieu of the Temple tax. However, the term “custom” might suggest that it was it was not enforced by law but that it was merely accepted by the masses. Let us keep in mind that the Jews were not a sovereign nation with official tax collectors and law enforcement agencies, neither in the Land of Israel nor in the Diaspora and, although they were permitted to live according to their ancestral laws (at least most of the time) it is not clear to what extent the community could enforce these payments.
3. Josephus makes reference here to a fixed sum: “two drachms coins”. Why this sum in particular? The following text provides the key.
4. In this text the Torah tells us of a census that was taken of the People of Israel prior to the construction of the Tabernacle. This census was accompanied by a poll of a half-shekel – which was a unit of weight for gold and silver, of roughly 11.4 grams – on each (adult male) member of the community. This payment was considered a ransom for the life of the individual because census taking was considered to be fraught with danger. By using the money to support the holy work of the Tabernacle the people would be spared the perils that might arise from the census.
From the simple reading of this text it would seem that this was a one time affair in preparation for the construction of the Tabernacle. However, it would appear from the above passages, as well as many others from this period, that the Jews considered the half-shekel payment described in this biblical text as an annual tax. This was the basis for this national custom and this was the basis for the determination of the fixed sum: the two drachms coins” of which Josephus speaks were the equivalent of the biblical half-shekel.
5. Given the belief that the contribution to the Temple was rooted in biblical law it should not be surprising that “all Jews throughout the habitable world” paid their dues. Nevertheless, if we think about this in the context of contemporary society it must seem amazing that, even without proper law enforcement, all the Jews made an annual contribution to the religious center in Israel! While Jews today may pay their annual synagogue fees, these fees are usually linked to some personal benefit such as seats for the High Holidays or synagogue privileges. And even then there are many who “crash” and don’t pay any fees at all. Although Israel today receives a great deal of support from Jews worldwide, the money comes from only a small percentage of the Jewish people many of whom don’t contribute to any Jewish causes at all. The notion that all the Jews could be galvanized to give regularly to a single Jewish cause seems practically beyond comprehension today.
Of course, Josephus doesn’t claim that “all” the Jews gave every year. It may be that “all Jews” gave at some point in their lives but not on an annual basis. Furthermore, there is at least one text which paints a somewhat less “rosy” picture. ????
6. In the absence of checks or bank wires one wonders how money could be transferred from one place to another. This text tells us how the money that was collected in Babylon was stored in two well protected cities. The money was sent from there in large convoys which protected the money from thieves at the appropriate time. This “appropriate time” is probably related to the time designated for each group as will be discussed in the following text.
7. This rabbinic text tells us that the funds that were collected were distributed at three different times according to the place of their origin: from the Land of Israel, from lands in its immediate environs, and from the more distant lands. In another rabbinic text (Mishnah Shekalim 3:1) we learn that this division is due to the fact that the funds from each location were brought to Jerusalem at different times – the first prior to Pesach, the second prior to Shavuot, and the third prior to Sukkot (These times were apparently chosen because of the duty to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem on these festivals. See below).
In this context, we are told us that the collection from the third group – the more distant lands – was the richest of all. Was this because the Jews there were more numerous, wealthier, or perhaps more generous (the half-shekel was apparently regarded at that time as only a minimum requirement)? Perhaps they felt guilty about living so far from the religious center and compensated for that by contributing more? Of course there is no way to answer this question with any certainty. Nevertheless, it should make us pause and think about the extent of and the motives of our contributions to Israel.
Go to the discussion board: Should Diaspora Jewry offer financial support to Israel today? How much? What are the most worthy causes?
Text Study 2
Read texts 5-8 and try to answer the following questions:
1. According to the biblical text (text 5) what laws are outlined in the biblical text?
2. What is the purpose of these laws?
3. Do these laws pertain to Jews living in the Diaspora as well?
4. What can we learn from Philo about the way in which the pilgrimage was understood in his day?
5. In his view, what is/are the purpose/purposes of this pilgrimage?
5. Exodus 23:14-17
Three times a year you shall hold a festival for Me: You shall observe the Feast of Unleavened bread – eating unleavened bread for seven days as I have commanded you – at the set time in the month of Abib, for in it you went forth from Egypt; and none shall appear before Me empty-handed; and the Feast of the Harvest, of the first fruits of your work, of what you sow in the field; and the Feast of Ingathering at the end of the year, when your gather in the results of your work from the field. Three times a year all your males shall appear before the Sovereign, the Lord.
6. Philo (lived in Alexandria (Egypt) from 20 BCE until 50 CE; was the first to present Jewish philosophy in a systematic fashion), Special Laws I, 69-70
Countless multitudes from countless cities come, some from over land, others over sea, from east and west and north and south at every feast. They take the temple for their port as a general haven and safe refuge from the bustle and great turmoil of life, and there they seek to find calm weather and, released from the cares whose yoke has been heavy upon them from their earliest years, to enjoy a brief breathing-space in scenes of genial cheerfulness. Thus filled with comfortable hopes they devote the leisure, as is their bounden duty, to holiness and the honoring of God. Friendships are formed between those who hitherto knew not each other, and the sacrifices and libations are the occasion of reciprocity of feeling and constitute the surest pledge that all are of one mind.
Suggested Answers
1. The Bible in this text prescribes the observance of three festivals: Pesach – known biblically as the “Feast of Unleavened Bread”, Shavuot – known also as the “Feast of the Harvest”, and Sukkot – known also as “The Feast of Ingathering”. But what happened to Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur? The festivals of this text are linked by virtue of their linkage to the soil, to the agricultural seasons (With regard to Shavuot and Sukkot the connection is abundantly clear whereas the festival of Pesach combines agricultural and historical themes. A detailed analysis of this concept is beyond the scope of this lesson.), which does not apply to Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. The Bible here regulates the observance of these festivals and requires that a pilgrimage be made on each festival to the sanctuary of the Lord and where sacrifices will be offered in His honor.
2. Although the text does not say so explicitly it would appear that the primary purpose of these festivals is thanksgiving to God for His bounty at each critical juncture in the agricultural season.
3. Although no date is given for the festivals of Sukkot and Shavuot in this text, the fact that the festival of Pesach is given a date – at the set time in the month of Abib (known later as Nisan) – suggests that the Bible was referring to the agricultural seasons of a particular location. Undoubtedly this location was the Land of Israel which was promised to the Jews and where they were headed at the time that these laws were first given.
Now, this is not to say that these festivals, widely celebrated by Jews around the world, have no meaning outside the Land. Indeed, the Bible elsewhere informs us that these festivals have a historical dimension as well – Pesach and Sukkot to commemorate the Exodus (the historical dimension of Pesach is already referred to in our text “for in it you went forth from Egypt”) and Shavuot to commemorate the giving of the Torah (interestingly, this does not appear at all in Bible but only in post-biblical literature) – which is unrelated to the agricultural seasons of the Land of Israel. Nevertheless, the focus of this text, and the others requiring a pilgrimage on the three festivals (Exodus 34:18-24 and Deuteronomy 16:16-17), is on the rhythms of nature and as intimately connected to the life of the People in their Land.
What, then, does this have to do with Diaspora-Israel relations which is what interests us? The answer is found in text 6.
4. In the context of his description of the laws pertaining to the Temple, Philo in this text tells us how the pilgrimage was performed in his day. Already from the beginning of this text it becomes clear that the pilgrimage was not restricted to the Jews from the Land of Israel but it included Jews “from over land… over sea, from east and west and north and south.” If so, the pilgrimage could no longer have been the occasions to celebrate and thank God for the produce of the Land. What then was its purpose?
5. The pilgrimage to the Temple on the festivals in Philo’s day was an opportunity to find “a general haven and safe refuge from the bustle and great turmoil of life… to find calm weather… to enjoy a brief breathing-space in scenes of genial cheerfulness.” In this relaxed and comfortable environment they devote their time to “holiness and the honoring of God” and, in so doing, they form meaningful friendships with Jews from around the world who are dedicated to the same cause and who espouse the same values.
In other words, while the pilgrimage revolves around the worship of God, the benefits accrue to the worshippers themselves. They find refuge and solace from the turmoil of life and their sense of brotherhood and friendship with other Jews is strengthened. Presumably, this experience helped them upon their return home, a kind of “recharging” of their religious and communal “batteries” that would make them feel better about themselves and their Jewishness.
Go to the Discussion Board. How many of you have been to Israel? What was the purpose of your visit? Describe your feelings about the trip?
Text Study 3
According to texts 7-9, what special accommodations were made for the pilgrims who came from abroad?
7. Mishnah (an early 3rd century CE compilation of rabbinic teachings) Ta’anit 1:3
On the third of Marcheshvan we [begin to] pray for rain. R. Gamliel says: On the seventh, [that is,] fifteen days after the feast so that the last Israelite may reach the River Euphrates.
8. Theodotus Inscription
Theodotus son of Vetinus, priest and head of the synagogue, the son and grandson of a head of the synagogue, built the synagogue for the reading of the Torah and the study of the commandments. [He built] the hospice, the rooms and the ritual bath for the purpose of giving hospitality to the needy from abroad.”
9. Avot according to R. Nathan, chapter 35
Ten miracles were wrought for our ancestors in Jerusalem… no man ever said to his fellow: “I haven’t found an oven in Jerusalem to roast the paschal sacrifices.”; No man ever said: “I haven’t found a bed to sleep in Jerusalem”; No man ever said: “Too narrow is the place for me that I should lodge in Jerusalem.”
Suggested Answer
In the weekday Amidah prayer (known also as the Shemoneh Esreh – the Eighteen Blessings) there is a blessing for a good and bountiful year (blessing # 9). In this blessing we request rainfall during the rainy season which, in Israel, is roughly from Pesach until after Sukkot (mid-April through mid-October). Thus, the clause “bestow dew and rain for a blessing” should in theory be recited in Israel at the onset of the rainy season, on the third day of the month of Marcheshvan, just as the first opinion in text 7 suggests. R. Gamliel, however, was concerned that the prayer for rain may, in fact, be answered. If so, this would cause great discomfort to the many pilgrims who were in the midst of their journey back home. He, therefore, ruled that the request for rain should be postponed “so that until the last Israelite may reach the River Euphrates” in Babylon from where the majority of the pilgrims arrived. In other words, the people of the Land of Israel had to make sacrifices to accommodate their brethren who came to the Land from afar.
This text (originally in Greek) is an inscription that was found during excavations of a group of buildings in Jerusalem from the Second Temple period. The inscription tells us that they were built by a certain Theodotus for the purpose of reading the Torah and Torah study. Furthermore, the inscription says that they were built also as to provide hospitality and a ritual bath to the needy from abroad. While this inscription does not identify these “needy” people, historians argue that they must have been the pilgrims who were in need of a place to stay during their sojourn in Jerusalem. This interpretation is supported by a text elsewhere that speaks of a synagogue of Alexandrians in Jerusalem. This too was likely set up, among other reasons, to provide hospitality to pilgrims from Alexandria along with a familiar language and culture.
Of course, one wonders whether such surroundings would have been conducive to the kind of pilgrimage experience described by Philo. After all, how exposed would they have been to other Jews if they “stuck to their own kind”?
Finally, we are told that Jerusalem was (and perhaps still is) a place of many miracles. Among these miracles are the facts (assuming these were “facts” and not colored by the author’s wishful thinking) that even during the pilgrim festivals when the city must have been thoroughly overcrowded no-one ever complained about a shortage of ovens for their paschal sacrifices, a shortage of beds or a shortage of space. While the author of this text wishes to extol God for performing such miracles it may be that it there were in fact shortages but because of the generosity of spirit of the hosts, the pilgrims were oblivious to them. Or, it may reflect the fact that the pilgrims themselves were so overwhelmed by the holy place and the holy moment that they lost sight of their material needs.
Go to the Discussion Board. For those of you who have been to Israel, what contact did you have with Israelis? Were they friendly and accommodating? Would you have wanted more, or less, contact with them?
